There was different view between William James and Sigmund Freud when tried to explain religion in psychology, that is, psychoanalyze and psycho humanistic.
The emergence of this opinion is consequence from different worldview when they show consciousness of men of religion. And both James end Freud put experience of religious in personal experience. And they have each reason.
For James, the consciousness of religion, however, based on personal, emotionality, and variety experience. The Third of thing that became experience of religious integrate to human itself. Therefore experiences, in limited form, can be called as relation to nominous.
Different from James, Freud show that no argumentative reason can describe to believe in God, and of course, this reason is non-rational. And then, He defined religion as obsession, and illusion.
In this case, what given by Freud actually, he didn’t feel what the meaning of personal experience like done by James in his studies. For James, the experience is true. And not it’s problem, “Is God present or no?” or “Who is God?” But “Haw to God and Religion can help people to get better life?”
In approaches for religion, James used a several theory and also critique for Freud, that is, Survival Theory. That religion must be understood as infantilism. A More, James believes that experience of religious only phenomenological indication, but he believes too for “a more”. So “a more” is beyond and overshadow superstructure established by religious system. In other word, James want to say that faith of being is right because they believe in them religion’s doctrine. This argument can help to explain faithful followers based on emotion in religion.
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04 Februari 2009
Religion as Non-structural System in Societas
A discussion of religion always appeals attention and is never on-going discourse. Religion is not only as doctrine (sacred) but also as experience of humanity (profane).
One of interesting contributions about religion is given by Victor Turner —an anthropologist who was born in Glasgow, Scotland 1920-1983— who studied religious phenomena of primitive and modern society in social and cultural dimensions. But he didn’t see social and cultural phenomenon an sich, he went beyond cultural interpretation of religious phenomena. His approaches of Ndembu’s people of northwestern Zambia produced greatest work of anthropology. In his views, society is dynamic social process that its phenomena can be analyzed as “social drama” containing infraction, crisis, regressive action, and reintegration phases. The rites, however, play central roles. So, according to Turner this context creates liminality’s concept.
The liminality (and communitas) concept is central core of his studies developed from rites de passage’s Arnold van Gennep. Van Gennep himself defined rites de passage as “rites which accompany every change of place, state, social position and age.” Liminality comes from limen, signifying “thereshold” in Latin. Liminality also defined as neither here nor there; they are betwixt and between the positions assigned and arrayed by law, custom, convention, and ceremonial. This concept of liminality then was applied by Turner not only in rituals but also in analyzing society, because of its rich nature of liminality, this concept gave a perspective of social life, first, in liminality man has a first experience as human. Second, liminality was in formative reflexity. Third, liminality then creates a concept of community.
Liminality, in reality, is a phase in which man is in undifferenences, that is, “antistruktur” experience. These experiences could be found in phase of liminality used by van Gennep and Turner did, that is: separation, margin, and, aggregation or incorporation. This third phase, finally, will shape a community.
Term, “community” came from Latin; communitas usually means as ‘alliance’. Here community must be understood as a way of social relation for real and direct inter-personal relationship. Community encountered by ritual subject, in fact, was different from situation and daily condition. Inter-personal relationships in the daily life took a place in a structure, whereas relationships in community came through anti-structure. Community was not seen as top-down structure, as reality of real inter-personal relationship transcendentally. As being believed by Turner, that community is not merely instinctual energy but that community essentially is human, and mode-of-being-in-the-world. So, the community actually deals with awareness and willing.
Through Above Turner’s descriptions, it is clear that liminality is process in which finally Turner will shape good community. This is same as being encountered by Muhammad (in Islam) when he was pointed by God (Allah SWT) to be become a leader and guider for Arab peoples on the time, where before institutionalizing the religion, he, first of all, experienced liminality in himself, that is, when he received the first revelation as prophet. There was a phase of transition from man to become a great leader and then finally he has a phase of reagregation, where he had to go back his community (ummah).
One thing must be paid a attention, that Turner’s concept really is a afford to recognize self within liminality . This is same as what Muhammad has done when he was in a grave Hero (a place in which he received first revelation), where he really experienced ambiguity himself. And what was done by prophet Muhammad actually dealed with the condition of Arabs for the time, so that he must encounter a process of liminality.
One of interesting contributions about religion is given by Victor Turner —an anthropologist who was born in Glasgow, Scotland 1920-1983— who studied religious phenomena of primitive and modern society in social and cultural dimensions. But he didn’t see social and cultural phenomenon an sich, he went beyond cultural interpretation of religious phenomena. His approaches of Ndembu’s people of northwestern Zambia produced greatest work of anthropology. In his views, society is dynamic social process that its phenomena can be analyzed as “social drama” containing infraction, crisis, regressive action, and reintegration phases. The rites, however, play central roles. So, according to Turner this context creates liminality’s concept.
The liminality (and communitas) concept is central core of his studies developed from rites de passage’s Arnold van Gennep. Van Gennep himself defined rites de passage as “rites which accompany every change of place, state, social position and age.” Liminality comes from limen, signifying “thereshold” in Latin. Liminality also defined as neither here nor there; they are betwixt and between the positions assigned and arrayed by law, custom, convention, and ceremonial. This concept of liminality then was applied by Turner not only in rituals but also in analyzing society, because of its rich nature of liminality, this concept gave a perspective of social life, first, in liminality man has a first experience as human. Second, liminality was in formative reflexity. Third, liminality then creates a concept of community.
Liminality, in reality, is a phase in which man is in undifferenences, that is, “antistruktur” experience. These experiences could be found in phase of liminality used by van Gennep and Turner did, that is: separation, margin, and, aggregation or incorporation. This third phase, finally, will shape a community.
Term, “community” came from Latin; communitas usually means as ‘alliance’. Here community must be understood as a way of social relation for real and direct inter-personal relationship. Community encountered by ritual subject, in fact, was different from situation and daily condition. Inter-personal relationships in the daily life took a place in a structure, whereas relationships in community came through anti-structure. Community was not seen as top-down structure, as reality of real inter-personal relationship transcendentally. As being believed by Turner, that community is not merely instinctual energy but that community essentially is human, and mode-of-being-in-the-world. So, the community actually deals with awareness and willing.
Through Above Turner’s descriptions, it is clear that liminality is process in which finally Turner will shape good community. This is same as being encountered by Muhammad (in Islam) when he was pointed by God (Allah SWT) to be become a leader and guider for Arab peoples on the time, where before institutionalizing the religion, he, first of all, experienced liminality in himself, that is, when he received the first revelation as prophet. There was a phase of transition from man to become a great leader and then finally he has a phase of reagregation, where he had to go back his community (ummah).
One thing must be paid a attention, that Turner’s concept really is a afford to recognize self within liminality . This is same as what Muhammad has done when he was in a grave Hero (a place in which he received first revelation), where he really experienced ambiguity himself. And what was done by prophet Muhammad actually dealed with the condition of Arabs for the time, so that he must encounter a process of liminality.
The Idea of the Holy
It is interesting to discuss religious experiences as elaborated by Rudolf Otto in The Idea of the Holy. Up to now the discussion appeals attention of many scholars in most parts of the world because religion as subject matter is unlimited, comprehensible, and multidimensional. Preliminary idea of Otto is to try to explain phenomenology of The holy in terms of numinous, that is an idea of mysterium tremendum et fascinosum.
According to Otto, religion has a reality of sui generis comprehensible but it is unexplainable (beyond conception or understanding). This religious experience, that has two ideas of rational experience and non-rational experience, takes someone (human) into an unthinkable and unthought area directly or indirectly. Otto uses the concept of the holy in elaborating the non-rational religious experience. The holy or the Sacred, in Otto’s view, is unique category of religion. It is different from the holy that have meaning “the completely good.” It is not moral term and Otto mention it numinous.
The experience of numinous then allows mysterium tremendum that consists of human and numinous. This experience, borrows Otto ‘s term, is sudden, overpowering, and dies away. The Feeling of it may at times come sweeping like a gentle tide, pervading the mind with a tranquil mood of deepest worship.
Misterium tremendem of Otto is starting point to understand concept of religious experience of people, in which someone –in tremendem– finds three elements of experience; awefulness, overpoweringness (majesty), and Energy or Urgency. These third elements will be related to experience in islamic tradition.
Awefulness or religious experience that is based on astonishment and fear ness. it is a feeling beyond the fear. In primitive tradition, this element could be expressed by “daemonic dread” or in Bible by “the wrath of God”. In Islam, this concept is called as Judgment day (yaumul khiamah). All human beings will be judged accordance with their/his deeds. The concept of judgement day makes man fear or scare and it motivates them to do well and avoid the wrongdoing (amal ma’ruf nahi mungkar) and obey the commands of God.
Experience of overpoweringness (majesty) is a religious experience that someone receives something absolutely untouchable. And it concerns with feelings as a creature that has –borrows Scheleiermacher’s term—feeling of dependence outside its self. It can be found in mysticism. Like experience of Abraham in looking for his God, that Otto describes as the consciousness of createdness and the consciousness of creaturehood. Or Moses ‘ experience of meeting his God in Mountain Sinai.
The least experience of tremendum is urgency and energy. This experience is expressed by using some symbols like vitality, emotional temper, will, force, movement, excitement, activity, and impetus and so on. It is contradictive to the ‘rational’ concepts of philospohers. And it also makes the prophets great in the eyes of his followers. Therefore in Islam, every prophet is given revelation or miracle (this miracle or mukjizah can also be mentioned by energy or urgency) to underpin or support him in preaching religious teachings (truth).
In the other hand, Otto also explain mysterium. This concept has two main ideas, that is, Mysterium of the wholly other and mysterium of fascination. The first refers to mystery believed by religion’s followers or they still believe on the primitive belief as fertility of the ground, of their animal, and of themselves. The wholly other try to explain these irrational sides or these pre-scientific thoughts with another analysis, like scientific views. By using scientific explanations of the natural phenomenon, the religious belief and religion must be reinterpreted or reformulated. That the irrational dimensions of religious areas as mentioned above, in fact, have its rationality in scientific areas. The second mystery is fascination. This concept arises from experience of tremendum that full of fear ness. Experience of fear ness of the religious followers doesn’t make them far away from religion but even make them approached it (read: God).
According to Otto, religion has a reality of sui generis comprehensible but it is unexplainable (beyond conception or understanding). This religious experience, that has two ideas of rational experience and non-rational experience, takes someone (human) into an unthinkable and unthought area directly or indirectly. Otto uses the concept of the holy in elaborating the non-rational religious experience. The holy or the Sacred, in Otto’s view, is unique category of religion. It is different from the holy that have meaning “the completely good.” It is not moral term and Otto mention it numinous.
The experience of numinous then allows mysterium tremendum that consists of human and numinous. This experience, borrows Otto ‘s term, is sudden, overpowering, and dies away. The Feeling of it may at times come sweeping like a gentle tide, pervading the mind with a tranquil mood of deepest worship.
Misterium tremendem of Otto is starting point to understand concept of religious experience of people, in which someone –in tremendem– finds three elements of experience; awefulness, overpoweringness (majesty), and Energy or Urgency. These third elements will be related to experience in islamic tradition.
Awefulness or religious experience that is based on astonishment and fear ness. it is a feeling beyond the fear. In primitive tradition, this element could be expressed by “daemonic dread” or in Bible by “the wrath of God”. In Islam, this concept is called as Judgment day (yaumul khiamah). All human beings will be judged accordance with their/his deeds. The concept of judgement day makes man fear or scare and it motivates them to do well and avoid the wrongdoing (amal ma’ruf nahi mungkar) and obey the commands of God.
Experience of overpoweringness (majesty) is a religious experience that someone receives something absolutely untouchable. And it concerns with feelings as a creature that has –borrows Scheleiermacher’s term—feeling of dependence outside its self. It can be found in mysticism. Like experience of Abraham in looking for his God, that Otto describes as the consciousness of createdness and the consciousness of creaturehood. Or Moses ‘ experience of meeting his God in Mountain Sinai.
The least experience of tremendum is urgency and energy. This experience is expressed by using some symbols like vitality, emotional temper, will, force, movement, excitement, activity, and impetus and so on. It is contradictive to the ‘rational’ concepts of philospohers. And it also makes the prophets great in the eyes of his followers. Therefore in Islam, every prophet is given revelation or miracle (this miracle or mukjizah can also be mentioned by energy or urgency) to underpin or support him in preaching religious teachings (truth).
In the other hand, Otto also explain mysterium. This concept has two main ideas, that is, Mysterium of the wholly other and mysterium of fascination. The first refers to mystery believed by religion’s followers or they still believe on the primitive belief as fertility of the ground, of their animal, and of themselves. The wholly other try to explain these irrational sides or these pre-scientific thoughts with another analysis, like scientific views. By using scientific explanations of the natural phenomenon, the religious belief and religion must be reinterpreted or reformulated. That the irrational dimensions of religious areas as mentioned above, in fact, have its rationality in scientific areas. The second mystery is fascination. This concept arises from experience of tremendum that full of fear ness. Experience of fear ness of the religious followers doesn’t make them far away from religion but even make them approached it (read: God).
Virtue and Vices in Religion’s Concept
In all tradition of religion, of course, every religion has concept about good and bad that related on practice of religion. This measurement given by core of doctrine about truth claim that focused on religion. It is connected to concept’s Islam about concept of virtue and vices, Islam in several principle have view of it, like a verse said; ان الدين عند الله الاسلام (For God, Islam is the best religion). The verse justified a ultimate truth of other. This truth claim is going to result of truth relativism's view in other religions. The Assumptions based on no truth real except Islam Truth. This opinion is general view followed by people, including Indonesian's people.
Majority of Indonesian's people is Islam and their view is still traditionally. They used this claims as instrument to make wrong other religion existence. Ironically, if followers of religion have same view, so clash it will be done. And we have shown violence emerged by this religion's view, like Aceh, Poso, and other accident. The accident usually occurs where religion is instrument and element fundamental for conflict inter-religion society.
What we mush do right now? We must do how to this faith can make piece for other religions no misfortune for them. The truth in believing of religion, of course, have authoritative prerequisite for its religion. If religion has no this prerequisite so it will leave. But how to the truth too give a piece in heart and structure of society. And finally can help a safe, piece and secure world where pluralism hasn't to avoid and be war, but it became key word of tolerance of good religion's life.
Therefore, it is need now to develop dialogue of inter-religion in order to the truth understood more perfect and sufficient. We don't want the truth destroy other truths like someone believe in his religion. And if we believe that truth is on going process. So, the only way that we must be done is open-self for belief and faith concerned outside (other-religion).
Majority of Indonesian's people is Islam and their view is still traditionally. They used this claims as instrument to make wrong other religion existence. Ironically, if followers of religion have same view, so clash it will be done. And we have shown violence emerged by this religion's view, like Aceh, Poso, and other accident. The accident usually occurs where religion is instrument and element fundamental for conflict inter-religion society.
What we mush do right now? We must do how to this faith can make piece for other religions no misfortune for them. The truth in believing of religion, of course, have authoritative prerequisite for its religion. If religion has no this prerequisite so it will leave. But how to the truth too give a piece in heart and structure of society. And finally can help a safe, piece and secure world where pluralism hasn't to avoid and be war, but it became key word of tolerance of good religion's life.
Therefore, it is need now to develop dialogue of inter-religion in order to the truth understood more perfect and sufficient. We don't want the truth destroy other truths like someone believe in his religion. And if we believe that truth is on going process. So, the only way that we must be done is open-self for belief and faith concerned outside (other-religion).
Understanding of Different Ways of Practical Religious
It is discussion about understanding of religious that appeals attention people to know called ultimate of reality; every one has different ways to it. However, of course, it is inner-characteristic of religious.
According to Marry Canon in his work, there is several ways in practical religion. That is, the sacred rite, the way of right action, the way of devotion, the way of shamanic mediation, the way of mystical quest, and the way of reasoned inquiry.
Canon shown sixth way is representative practical religious which done by people.
In religious life, sometimes we found personal experience of religious, like W. James' concept. It happened too for our experience when I have practiced my faith in Islam. Canon especially gives me a method to tell in which ways I include. Having experience concerned with understanding things, grasping how things fit together and why things are the way are, fist of all for oneself, but also for the sake of the other's understanding too. So, from the sixth ways, maybe in our opinion, I am the way of reasoned inquiry.
The Way of Reasoned Inquiry is focused, according to Canon, to rationality approach and thought to reality of things. The way begins to study sacred text of religion and results got in the past in related to describe essential being of things that for reason not only have questions before but also as starting point and guidance to understanding ultimate reality.
Sacred text as al Qur'an in Islam, has sense-hermeneutics that express a worldviews (weltanschauung). My belief in al Qur'an is same as ultimate reality itself. As a sacred book (kitabullah), for me, al Qur'an isn't only idea books (kitab ul-fikr) but also 'practical book' (kitab al 'amal). Hence it gives me inspiration to do anything rather than it regarded as mu'jizat who read finding reward.
My opinion above is based on historical al Qur'an itself. Al Qur'an became motivator strongest to make changing society. The changing happens because Qur'anic's ideas applied to process its changing. In other word, al Qur'an is practiced in pattern and behavior, so its sprit real in the world. There are any patterns neither Prophet Muhammad nor story described about it.
Therefore, my assumption have clear hermeneutical orientation, that is try to seek indication of problems cognitive's life, rational argumentation, and systematic and comprehensive worldview and finally to understanding ultimate reality.
According to Marry Canon in his work, there is several ways in practical religion. That is, the sacred rite, the way of right action, the way of devotion, the way of shamanic mediation, the way of mystical quest, and the way of reasoned inquiry.
Canon shown sixth way is representative practical religious which done by people.
In religious life, sometimes we found personal experience of religious, like W. James' concept. It happened too for our experience when I have practiced my faith in Islam. Canon especially gives me a method to tell in which ways I include. Having experience concerned with understanding things, grasping how things fit together and why things are the way are, fist of all for oneself, but also for the sake of the other's understanding too. So, from the sixth ways, maybe in our opinion, I am the way of reasoned inquiry.
The Way of Reasoned Inquiry is focused, according to Canon, to rationality approach and thought to reality of things. The way begins to study sacred text of religion and results got in the past in related to describe essential being of things that for reason not only have questions before but also as starting point and guidance to understanding ultimate reality.
Sacred text as al Qur'an in Islam, has sense-hermeneutics that express a worldviews (weltanschauung). My belief in al Qur'an is same as ultimate reality itself. As a sacred book (kitabullah), for me, al Qur'an isn't only idea books (kitab ul-fikr) but also 'practical book' (kitab al 'amal). Hence it gives me inspiration to do anything rather than it regarded as mu'jizat who read finding reward.
My opinion above is based on historical al Qur'an itself. Al Qur'an became motivator strongest to make changing society. The changing happens because Qur'anic's ideas applied to process its changing. In other word, al Qur'an is practiced in pattern and behavior, so its sprit real in the world. There are any patterns neither Prophet Muhammad nor story described about it.
Therefore, my assumption have clear hermeneutical orientation, that is try to seek indication of problems cognitive's life, rational argumentation, and systematic and comprehensive worldview and finally to understanding ultimate reality.
ANTROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF RELIGION [Religion as cultural system]
Talking about religion, especially in view’s Clifford Geertz (b.1926), that religion is understood as culture, and culture, in Geertz’s formulation, is defined as follows: “[Culture] denotes an historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life”. In this paradigm, Geertz would like to describe function of religious symbols, or, in his language, how “sacred symbols function within the cultural context”
Geertz calls for an expansion of vision and an updating of anthropological interest. He proposes that the same can be achieved by concentrating on the role of sacred symbols in transmitting meaning in dynamic cultural contexts. His attitude has been influenced by Parsons, certainly, and the same influence is to be seen in Geertz’s tendency to formulate definitions by integrating a variety of necessary components. Parsons, we recall, was unwilling to leave important factors unacknowledged. Inspired by the same ideal, Geertz defines religion as:
(1) a system of symbol which acts to (2)establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by (3) formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and (4) clothing these conceptions with an aura of factuality that (5) the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic.
The definition assigned to religion befits the conception of culture as “an historically transmitted pattern of meanings.” Putting the two definitions (namely, that of religion and of culture) together. Geertz writes:
Sacred symbols function to synthesize a people’s ethos —the tone, character, and quality of their life, its moral and aesthetic style and mood— and their world –view— the picture they have of the way things in sheer actuality are, their most comprehensive ideas of order.
This agrees with his definition of religion as “a system of symbols” that carries certain functions.
The sacred symbols —that include in religious activities— cause to emerge long-lasting moods and motivations in men (believer of religion), and shaping a conception of pattern by done with the factual expression.
It is related to conception’s Geertz, Mary Douglas proposes similar paradigm about religion when it is shown in anthropological approaches. His work’s Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (1966). She illustrated religion as a purity and danger (sacred and propane). By using concept’s Pollution and Taboo, she shown religious rites as a constructions of social. In Douglas’s view, in fact, all societies exhibit ritual processes by which abominations are distinguished, pollutants are identified, and dangers are exorcised so that the legitimate collective order is not destroyed by such dangerous and destructive forces. In the way in which the distinction between sacred and profane is effected within this ritual context lie the clues to the determinants of order and meaning by which both society and reality are constructed.
Therefore, there are seemed views between Geertz and Douglas although they used approaches the object to difference way. The views are in the understanding of ritual system, because both emphasize to the system of symbols in religious sites in which profane or sacred states.
According to Geetz, that symbols is significant term to understand religion. In Islam tradition, it is too phenomena used to religious rites, for example, pilgrim (hajj), praying, fasting, celebration of birthday of prophet, Isra’ Mi’raj etc.
The symbols in the religious rites is fundamental element contained hidden doctrine and non-rational dimensions. Islam is very attentions symbols and even recognizing. By the symbols people could take care him religion end make transformation of consciousness.
Geertz calls for an expansion of vision and an updating of anthropological interest. He proposes that the same can be achieved by concentrating on the role of sacred symbols in transmitting meaning in dynamic cultural contexts. His attitude has been influenced by Parsons, certainly, and the same influence is to be seen in Geertz’s tendency to formulate definitions by integrating a variety of necessary components. Parsons, we recall, was unwilling to leave important factors unacknowledged. Inspired by the same ideal, Geertz defines religion as:
(1) a system of symbol which acts to (2)establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by (3) formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and (4) clothing these conceptions with an aura of factuality that (5) the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic.
The definition assigned to religion befits the conception of culture as “an historically transmitted pattern of meanings.” Putting the two definitions (namely, that of religion and of culture) together. Geertz writes:
Sacred symbols function to synthesize a people’s ethos —the tone, character, and quality of their life, its moral and aesthetic style and mood— and their world –view— the picture they have of the way things in sheer actuality are, their most comprehensive ideas of order.
This agrees with his definition of religion as “a system of symbols” that carries certain functions.
The sacred symbols —that include in religious activities— cause to emerge long-lasting moods and motivations in men (believer of religion), and shaping a conception of pattern by done with the factual expression.
It is related to conception’s Geertz, Mary Douglas proposes similar paradigm about religion when it is shown in anthropological approaches. His work’s Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (1966). She illustrated religion as a purity and danger (sacred and propane). By using concept’s Pollution and Taboo, she shown religious rites as a constructions of social. In Douglas’s view, in fact, all societies exhibit ritual processes by which abominations are distinguished, pollutants are identified, and dangers are exorcised so that the legitimate collective order is not destroyed by such dangerous and destructive forces. In the way in which the distinction between sacred and profane is effected within this ritual context lie the clues to the determinants of order and meaning by which both society and reality are constructed.
Therefore, there are seemed views between Geertz and Douglas although they used approaches the object to difference way. The views are in the understanding of ritual system, because both emphasize to the system of symbols in religious sites in which profane or sacred states.
According to Geetz, that symbols is significant term to understand religion. In Islam tradition, it is too phenomena used to religious rites, for example, pilgrim (hajj), praying, fasting, celebration of birthday of prophet, Isra’ Mi’raj etc.
The symbols in the religious rites is fundamental element contained hidden doctrine and non-rational dimensions. Islam is very attentions symbols and even recognizing. By the symbols people could take care him religion end make transformation of consciousness.
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